Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics
Assignment 109 Practical Criticism. This blog is part of an assignment for paper 109: Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics
Table of contents:
Personal Information
Assignment Details
Abstract
Key words
Introduction
About author
The Reading Difficulties Identified by I. A. Richards
Figurative language
Conclusion
Reference
Personal Information:
Name: Nirali Vaghela
Batch: M.A. sem 2 (2024-2026)
Enrollment number:5108240036
Email address niralivaghela9270@gmail.com
Roll number:18
Assignment Details :
Topic: Practical Criticism
Paper & subject Name: 109: Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetics
Submitted to: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, MKBU, Bhavnagar
Date of submission:17/4/2025
Abstract:
This assignment explores I. A. Richards’ Practical Criticism and its relevance to reading comprehension. Drawing from Robert E. Shafer’s article, it examines Richards’ identification of common reading difficulties such as literalism, stock responses, and issues with figurative language. The paper also outlines Richards’ theoretical contributions—including his four kinds of meaning and distinctions in language use—and their lasting influence on literary pedagogy and modern reading models.
Key words
I. A. Richards, Practical Criticism, Reading Comprehension, Figurative Language, Literary Theory, Four Kinds of Meaning, Misinterpretation, Reader Response, Literary Pedagogy
Introduction
"The Practical Criticism of I. A. Richards and Reading Comprehension", written by Robert E. Shafer and published in the Journal of Reading in 1970. It discusses I. A. Richards' contributions to reading comprehension and literary criticism, particularly his work Practical Criticism (1929).
About author
Ivor Armstrong Richards CH (26 February 1893[1] – 7 September 1979[1]), known as I. A. Richards, was an English educator, literary critic, poet, and rhetorician. His work contributed to the foundations of New Criticism, a formalist movement in literary theory which emphasized the close reading of a literary text, especially poetry, in an effort to discover how a work of literature functions as a self-contained and self-referential æsthetic object.
I A. Richards and His Influence on Reading Comprehension
Ivor Armstrong Richards was a key figure in the development of modern literary criticism, and his book Practical Criticism remains an influential work in the field. His studies at Cambridge University focused on how readers interpret poetry and identified major difficulties in comprehension. This study of literary interpretation led to broader discussions on reading comprehension beyond just poetry.
Shafer’s article explores how Richards’ findings can be applied to contemporary reading education. Richards believed that comprehension difficulties extend beyond poetry to all forms of literature, making his insights valuable for teachers and researchers in reading comprehension.
The Reading Difficulties Identified by I. A. Richards
Richards identified multiple challenges that hinder comprehension. These issues were discovered through his analysis of student responses (called "protocols") to poetry at Cambridge University. Shafer categorizes these difficulties as follows:
1. Failure to Grasp the Plain Sense of a Text
Many students struggled to understand the basic, straightforward meaning of a poem. They failed to interpret even the prose sense of the text, leading to misapprehensions about its tone and intent. Richards emphasized that this was not just a poetic issue but a general reading problem.
For example, when students attempted to paraphrase poetry, they often distorted its meaning, revealing their misunderstanding. This issue remains relevant in modern education, as many students struggle with identifying an author’s intended meaning, especially in complex texts.
2. Sensuous Apprehension and Rhythm in Reading
Richards noted that words are not merely symbols but carry sound and rhythm, even when read silently. Some readers naturally perceive these elements, while others struggle to recognize rhythm, meter, and movement in text.
A major finding was that students expected poetic structure to conform to regular patterns, influenced by classical education in Latin and Greek verse. When confronted with irregular rhythms, they found the poetry confusing. Richards emphasized that good poetry often deviates from strict patterns to create dynamic and engaging rhythms.
This idea has implications for reading instruction today, suggesting that teachers should help students develop a sensitivity to the auditory and rhythmic elements of language.
3. The Role of Visual Imagery in Reading
Richards found that readers varied greatly in their ability to visualize what they read. Some students strongly relied on mental imagery, while others lacked this ability altogether. This variability in visualization led to diverse interpretations of the same poem.
For example, one reader might imagine a vivid scene while another struggles to form any mental picture. This affects comprehension because imagery helps readers connect with a text emotionally and intellectually. Understanding that readers differ in their visualization abilities can help educators develop techniques to enhance reading engagement.
4. Difficulties with Figurative Language and Symbolism
Many students struggled with metaphors, similes, and other figurative elements. They often sought literal meanings, missing the poet’s intended significance. Richards emphasized that effective reading requires an appreciation of symbolism and figurative expression.
A reader who focuses solely on factual accuracy may dismiss the deeper meanings of a text. This problem persists in modern reading comprehension, as many students find it difficult to interpret metaphors and abstract ideas.
5. Mnemonic Irrelevancies
Richards discovered that personal experiences and emotions sometimes interfere with reading comprehension. Some students linked poems to personal memories, which led them to misinterpret the poem’s meaning.
For instance, a student might associate a poem’s imagery with a personal childhood memory, affecting their objective understanding. These subjective associations can sometimes enhance engagement but may also distort meaning.
6. Stock Responses
"Stock responses" occur when readers bring pre-existing attitudes and emotions to a text rather than responding to the text itself. Readers might impose their own biases and expectations, leading to misinterpretations.
For example, a reader with strong political beliefs might misread a neutral poem as politically charged. Richards argued that effective reading requires an open-minded approach, free from automatic emotional reactions.
7. Sentimentality and Inhibition
Richards noted that some readers respond too emotionally to texts, becoming sentimental, while others react with excessive detachment, suppressing their emotions. Both extremes hinder proper comprehension.
For instance, a sentimental reader might overreact to a poem’s themes, reading more emotion into it than intended. Conversely, an overly analytical reader may fail to engage emotionally, missing key aspects of the text. Richards argued that balanced reading involves both intellectual and emotional engagement.
8. Doctrinal Adhesions
This issue arises when a reader’s personal beliefs interfere with their interpretation of a text. If a poem seems to conflict with a reader’s worldview, they may reject it outright rather than attempting to understand it.
For example, a religious reader might struggle to interpret a secular poem objectively. Richards argued that readers should approach texts with an open mind rather than imposing personal doctrines on them.
9. Technical Presuppositions
Readers often expect texts to follow familiar conventions. When a writer deviates from traditional structures, some readers react negatively. This was particularly evident when students encountered modernist poetry, which often broke grammatical and structural norms.
An example is the poetry of e. e. cummings, whose unconventional capitalization and punctuation confused many readers. Richards argued that readers should focus on meaning rather than rigid expectations about form.
10. General Critical Preconceptions
Richards noted that many readers approach texts with preconceived critical theories, which can obscure genuine understanding. For instance, a reader who believes poetry must always be lyrical may struggle with narrative or experimental poetry.
He criticized rigid literary dogmas that blind readers to new interpretations. Instead, he advocated for a flexible and open-ended approach to reading, encouraging readers to judge each text on its own terms.
Richards' Influence on Reading Pedagogy
Richards’ work contributed to the study of reading comprehension by demonstrating that reading is not merely decoding words but involves multiple cognitive and emotional processes. His findings influenced later educational models, particularly in the development of reading comprehension strategies.
Relation to Modern Reading Models
Richards' ideas laid the groundwork for later theories of reading comprehension, including:
The Gray-Robinson Model (1960s): A model of reading skills that identified different cognitive processes involved in comprehension.
Barrett’s Taxonomy (1968): A classification system for different levels of reading comprehension, including literal understanding, inference, and critical evaluation.
These models built on Richards’ insights by providing structured frameworks for understanding how people read and interpret texts.
The Continued Relevance of I. A. Richards
Shafer’s article highlights how Richards’ work remains relevant to modern reading research. His identification of common reading difficulties helps educators develop strategies to improve comprehension.
Key takeaways include:
1. Reading comprehension is complex – It involves sensory, intellectual, and emotional processes.
2. Readers bring personal biases and experiences to texts – Awareness of this can improve interpretation.
3. Effective reading requires both analysis and emotional engagement – A balanced approach enhances understanding.
4. Teachers should help students develop sensitivity to literary techniques – Rhythm, imagery, and figurative language are crucial for comprehension.
5. Educational methods must evolve – While progress has been made, many of Richards’ insights still apply to contemporary reading challenges.
Richards’ work bridges literary criticism and reading education, showing that the way we interpret literature can inform broader reading strategies. By integrating his insights into teaching, educators can help students become more thoughtful and engaged readers.
This analysis synthesizes the core ideas from Shafer’s article while expanding on their relevance to modern reading education.
Figurative language
I.A. Richards, a pioneering literary critic, introduced innovative approaches to understanding figurative language in poetry, particularly through his work "Practical Criticism" (1929). He emphasized that the value of a poem lies in the reactions and attitudes it evokes in readers, assessing whether it fosters emotional balance and tranquility.
Four Kinds of Meaning
Richards proposed that words in poetry convey four types of meaning:
1. Sense: The literal meaning or the information conveyed by the words.
2. Feeling: The emotional tone or attitude expressed.
3. Tone: The writer's attitude toward the subject and audience.
4. Intention: The purpose or underlying motive behind the expression.
Understanding these aspects is crucial for accurate interpretation and appreciation of poetry.
Two Uses of Language
Richards distinguished between two primary uses of language:
Referential (Scientific) Use: Language that conveys factual information and logical reasoning.
Emotive (Poetic) Use: Language that evokes emotions and creates imagery.
Recognizing this distinction helps readers appreciate the unique function of poetic language in eliciting emotional responses.
Four Types of Misunderstanding
Richards identified common misunderstandings that hinder proper interpretation of poetry:
1. Literalism: Taking figurative expressions at face value, leading to misinterpretation.
2. Over-Emphasis on Imagery: Focusing too much on individual images rather than the overall meaning.
3. Inadequate Sensitivity to Tone: Failing to grasp the poet's attitude or mood.
4. Technical Presuppositions: Allowing preconceived notions about poetic form to cloud understanding.
By addressing these pitfalls, readers can engage more deeply with poetic works.
Analysis of Poems
In "Practical Criticism," Richards applied his theories by analyzing poems such as "Solemn and Gray," "A Health, a Ringing Health," and "Climb Cloud." He examined how figurative language, personification, and metaphor function within these works, highlighting both effective uses and potential over-elaborations that could obscure meaning.
Richards' insights into figurative language and practical criticism have significantly influenced modern literary analysis, encouraging readers to engage with texts on a deeper, more nuanced level.
Conclusion
Reference:
Barad, Dilip. (2024). I.A. Richards - Figurative Language Practical criticism.10.13140/RG.2.2.23687.98724.
Shafer, Robert E. “The Practical Criticism of I. A. Richards and Reading Comprehension.” Journal of Reading, vol. 14, no. 2, 1970, pp. 10108.JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/40012942. Accessed 5 Mar. 2025.
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